HI6005 Management and Organisations- The Milgram Experiment
What would be the limitations of linear programming?
In what kinds of situation could the linear programming be useful to decision making?
Answers
Activity 1 –The Milgram Experiment
Section 1- Key Ideas
According to YouTube (2009), The Milgram Experiment was conducted by a social psychologist Stanley Milgram called the obedience study. It was a series of social psychology experiments conducted in the 1960s. The willingness of the study participants was measured by the authority figure aiming to assess how far can people go in obeying instructions if that involved harming other people. There were 40 male volunteers participating in the study playing the role of teacher and learner. The learner was asked certain questions and the teacher instructed to administer an electric shock in case a wrong answer was given. In case the teachers denied administering an electric shock, four prods were read out. The participants involved in the study did not know that the participants receiving shocks were only acting out responses to imaginary shocks. It was found that two-thirds of the teachers administered the highest level of shock knowing that the learners were in pain and distress. It was evaluated that the teachers were pressurized to do so by an authoritarian figure (Haslam, Reicher and Birney 2014).
The key ideas that can be generated are that obedience is at the highest level if the commands are given by a higher authoritarian figure instead of another volunteer. It is evaluated that normal people are likely to follow orders if the higher authority inst
ructs them to do so, even to the extent of killing someone. It is noted that obedience to authority is found in all of us as we are brought up in that manner. Usually, people tend to obey orders from people of higher authority if they are legal based or morally correct. In daily situations, people obey orders from higher authority to obtain rewards. Also, they might want to avoid negative consequences by disobeying as people consider authority as legitimate. The people may carry obedience to the extreme as they may justify their behaviour of assigning responsibility to the authority and not themselves. The people tend not to offend the higher authority. They may obey easy commands in the beginning and later they may be compelled to obey difficult commands. The participants blamed the experimenter if anything happened to the learners. While there were participants who obeyed the superiors but blamed themselves. The research study also provides a reference point for Nazi behaviour that killed 38,000 Jews in cold blood to follow their commander. Parents, teachers, religious leaders, politicians, and other authoritarian figures reward us if we obey them (Haslam, Reicher and Birney 2016).
Section 2- Practical Application
In psychological terms, obedience is a form of social influence in which an individual responds to the other, who is an authority figure. It is different from conformity as conformity takes place from social pressure. As discovered from the Milgram’s experiment, human beings have unexpectedly powerful tendency to obey their authorities. I shall strive to stand up against unjust authority and arbitrary behaviour. Given a situation, if I face the same in my organization, I shall follow certain preventive actions to handle or resist unwanted pressure from the higher authority. Firstly, I shall question the authority’s legitimacy as we often give too much liberty to the people by their demeanour or dressing sense, irrespective or their authoritarian powers. For example, I have seen situations where an individual was able to feed his parking meter as he saw a fireman’s uniform as a passerby. I shall always question myself before carrying out the act if it is appropriate. I shall ask myself if it would be something I would do on my own initiative. Probably, a negative response shall be received as the moral considerations come into play (Reicher, Haslam and Miller 2014).
We are taught to obey authority under all conditions. But we must not obey the authority if they are wrong. I shall consider it my duty to question the authority and stop them in tracks. It may also be termed as intelligent disobedience. As stated by Stanley Milgram, the people obey out of fear, or to appear co-operative even if they have to act against their own desires. Also, I shall not start complying with commands if I feel uneasy about it. The farther one moves along the continuum of increasingly destructive acts, the harder it is to extract oneself from the commanding authority's grip, because to do so is to confront the fact that the earlier acts of compliance were wrong. If I am a part of the group who are commanded to carry out immoral acts, I shall find an ally in the group who shares similar views and perceptions with me. An ally must be spotted who shall be willing to join me in opposing the objectionable commands (Begue et al. 2014).
Activity 2 –Linear Programming Word Problem
Insights into Rational Decision Making Approach
According to YouTube (2010), linear programming aims to finding an optimal solution to a given problem under multiple constraints. They are composed of multiple decision variables and numerical values. These values are arranged into a linear objective function that can be used to solve product mix, distribution, portfolio selection and more. The rational decision making model is a step-by-step process in which the decision maker needs to optimize the best solution for the problem. Further, it is evaluated that rational decision making approach either maximizes the profits or minimizes the cost (Dantzig, 2016). The video shows how business people are faced with decision making- be it intuitive or rational decision making. Rational decision making considers the facts and is a step-by-step process to decision making. The video reveals that the problem must be defined at first. Decision criteria must be identified. Weights must be allocated to the different weight criteria. Alternatives must be developed, evaluated and chosen. It is noted how rational decision making sets up the problem similar to the linear programming model in which real word problems can be mapped mathematically (Demirel, Demirel and Gokçen 2016). The video evaluates that decision making follows an orderly path from problem to solution. The decision making shall be unbiased, objective and based on facts. Risk and uncertainty are addressed as sound approaches (Ryan et al. 2014).
Limitations of Linear Programming
The mathematical technique linear programming can help in making optimum decisions but it is subject to various limitations. Although linear programming is better than conventional theory of production, the real problems of planning cannot be solved. It is not simple to specify an objective function in mathematic form. Also, it is complex to consider social, financial or institutional constraints. Also, the assumptions made by the linear programming are unrealistic. For example, it assumes that the factory proportion remains constant and the relationship between input-output are linear. These assumptions can only be true in case of constant returns to scale and perfect competition in the market. It is not true in real case scenario as imperfect competition prevails (Endelman, and Plomion 2014). Further, the linear programming model presents trial and error solutions and it is not simple to find out optimal solutions to all business problems. The linear programming is a highly mathematical and complicated technique. The greatest challenge is the linear nature of problems. Also, linear programming usually takes fractional values and normal product values need to be integer. There are several situations in which the variables cannot be divided and non-integral values cannot be produced. Even if the above problems are surmounted, a major problem is one of estimating relevant values of the various constant coefficients that enter into a linear programming mode, i.e., prices, etc. It is possible that the set of constraints cannot be directly expressible as linear inequalities (Rheinboldt 2014).
Situations Useful for Linear Programming
Linear programming can be suitable in multiple situations. It can be used to find the cheapest combination of food that can fulfil the diet requirement. These are called blending problems in which the linear programming technique helps in producing a final product by mixing a variety of raw materials that arise in case of chemical products, diet problems and petroleum products. Further, linear programming can be used in situation of portfolio optimization. The risk in the investment portfolio can be minimized subject to achieving a certain return. Therefore, the financial manager can benefit from the linear programming technique who handles mutual fund, shares and bonds to maximize return on investment. The linear programming technique can be applied for optimum allocation of capital resources such as manpower, machines and materials to maximize revenue. Linear programming technique can be used to solve problems related to selection, recruitment and training the different personnel in an organization (Rheinboldt 2014). The number of employees required to meet the production schedule are determined. Linear programming helps in resolving the problems of a firm facing inventory management issues. Every organization aims to reduce its inventory cost and space constraints. The linear programming technique helps the marketing manager as they can analyse the audience in covering the advertising based on the given media and budget. Also, the marketing manager enables the optimal distribution schedule to transport the distribution schedule. The distribution can be done in a manner that reaches the different market locations at minimum cost. It is also used to solve telecommunication problems such as call routing, network design and internet traffic (Ryan et al. 2014).
Conclusion
The Milgram’s activity concluded that greater the physical closeness of the authority, higher shall be the obedience response. Also, the dressing code of the authority figure such as a coat or suit having high prestige shall result in more responsive behaviours. The study found that 65% participants were willing to deliver the maximum shocks to the learner after receiving orders from the experimenter. It is evaluated that normal people are likely to follow orders if the higher authority instructs them to do so, even to the extent of killing someone. This indicates that the people involved in the study were capable of inflicting pain in other people, without questioning the authority. Further, the linear programming model is used to solve problems on a daily basis. The video reveals that the problem must be defined at first. Decision criteria must be identified. Weights must be allocated to the different weight criteria. Alternatives must be developed, evaluated and chosen. There are several situations in which the variables cannot be divided and non-integral values cannot be produced. Linear programming can be suitable in multiple situations. The risk in the investment portfolio can be minimized subject to achieving a certain return. Linear programming helps in resolving the problems of a firm facing inventory management, marketing and distribution issues.
References
Bègue, L., Beauvois, J., Courbet, D., Oberlé, D., Lepage, J. and Duke, A., 2014. Personality Predicts Obedience in a Milgram Paradigm. Journal of Personality, 83(3), pp.299-306.
Dantzig, G., 2016. Linear Programming and Extensions. 1st ed. Princeton University Press.
Demirel, E., Demirel, N. and Gökçen, H., 2016. A mixed integer linear programming model to optimize reverse logistics activities of end-of-life vehicles in Turkey. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, pp.2101-2113.
Endelman, J. and Plomion, C., 2014. LPmerge: an R package for merging genetic maps by linear programming. Bioinformatics, 30(11), pp.1623-1624.
Haslam, S., Reicher, S. and Birney, M., 2014. Nothing by Mere Authority: Evidence that in an Experimental Analogue of the Milgram Paradigm Participants are Motivated not by Orders but by Appeals to Science. Journal of Social Issues, 70(3), pp.473-488.
Haslam, S., Reicher, S. and Birney, M., 2016. Questioning authority: new perspectives on Milgram's ‘obedience’ research and its implications for intergroup relations. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, pp.6-9.
Reicher, S., Haslam, S. and Miller, A., 2014. What Makes a Person a Perpetrator? The Intellectual, Moral, and Methodological Arguments for Revisiting Milgram's Research on the Influence of Authority. Journal of Social Issues, 70(3), pp.393-408.
Rheinboldt, W., 2014. Elementary Linear Programming with Applications. 1st ed. UK: Elsevier Science.
Ryan, K., Adams, K., Vosti, S., Ordiz, M., Cimo, E. and Manary, M., 2014. A comprehensive linear programming tool to optimize formulations of ready-to-use therapeutic foods: an application to Ethiopia. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(6), pp.1551-1558.
YouTube, 2009. Milgram's Obedience to Authority Experiment 2009 1/3. [online] YouTube. Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcvSNg0HZwk> [Accessed 2 May 2017].
YouTube. (2010). Linear Programming Word Problem - Example 1. YouTube. Retrieved 4 May 2017, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ACJ9ewUC6U
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